Last Update by clicking on: Countering Polarization. ed: 4-16-08.
INTRODUCTION - A-1
The following outlines basic practices, traditions, beliefs, and values followed by Muslims in America and overseas. It discusses variations in approaches to Islam that range from conservative fundamentalist interpretations, and selective literalist interpretations that often are connected with political agendas, to progressive interpretations. The latter rely on the basic values implicit in Islam while simplifying practices and separating out ancient cultural traditions that vary from one nation to the other. Like other religions that have withstood the test of time, Islam has a small percentage of regressive extremists some of whom ignore some of the universal values inherent in their faith. Final sections of this posting discuss iinterpretations of several relevant and oft-quoted verses from the Qur'an.
NOTE: Some paragraphs herein are near duplicates of those in my book, published by Xlibris.com. They are repeated here since some readers of this posting will not read that book. This posting is much more detailed in discussion about Muslims than is that book. My book is available now from Xlibris' bookstore by clicking on: Countering Polarization, the Colorado State University Bookstore and the Boulder Book Store. The book is now also available from Amazon.com and Barnes and Noble.
I believe that learning about how young Muslims manage their personal identities in times of societal and cultural change help explain reactions of young Muslims in the Middle East. Yet, we seldom hear specialists on the Middle East who appear on news broadcasts mention such causal factors as identity management, humiliation at parents and grandparents having been evicted from their homes or having their land occupied by foreign powers that have little appreciation and knowledge of their culture.
On October 12, 2007, a group of 138 Muslim religious leaders from around the world published a .pdf web posting concerning "A Common Word Between" Muslims and Christians. The committee included the following from the USA. Seyyed Hossein Nasr & Joseph Lumbard, Hafiz Yusuf, Z. Kavakci, Ibrahim Kalin, Shaykh Kabir Helminski, Shaykh Hamza Yusuf Hanson, Caner Dagli, Nihad Awad, Akbar Ahmed, Sheikh Muhammad Nur Abdullah, Feisal Abdul Rauf. I am sorry to say that I did not find the verse 30:30 in the Qur'an mentioned in their statement. That verse refers to the Arabic word fitrah which is explained as follows. The Muslim word "al fitrah" points to a primordial knowledge deeply imbedded into our being. In my view, that implies that every child is born with an innate (hardwired) desire for a relationship with God. This idea was sparked in my mind when I read Muhammad Asad's translation of the Qur'an entitled "The Message of the Qur'an" (see his footnote #27 in Verse 30:30.)and Nasr's "The Heart of Islam" on pages 6 and 7. It seems that the group emphasized a very anthropomorphic model of God, ignoring implied references to cognitive psychology which I find in the Qur'an.
The posting of the group's ideas is accessible at: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/11_10_07_letter.pdf].
CONSIDERATIONS WE NEED TO KEEP IN MIND WHEN EXAMINING RESPONSES TO CHANGE- A-2
1. As we humans grow, we expand our web of relationships and our perspectives. We make commitments to: family, groups, communities, career, and organizations beyond our family. Religion provides a set of universal value priorities that aim to guide behavior, such as being compassionate, tolerant of cultural and ethnic differences, and caring toward others. Our ethnic culture provides more-specialized values and norms than universal ones. These ethnic values guide our endeavors to manage personal and group identities as we mature. The cultural traditions of our ethnic/nationality group guide how we treat other persons and Mother Nature and how to balance our commitments that range from parochial to global scales, considering ones family, job alternatives, friends, charity, religion, government, and natural eco-systems.
2 Advances in communication technology spread different cultural values around the world. Some are good and some are not so good. For example, people who value modesty and privacy are exposed to girls in bikinis and romantic TV shows that stimulate new ideas and desires. Yet, rapid communications also spread values related to freedom and democratic forms of governance. Religious and governmental leaders need to discover how to strengthen good constructive ways of responding to others and counter the destructive, self-oriented, and immoral ways.
Many people function satisfactorily at family and tribal levels, often with low tolerance for ambiguity and limited resources for critical thinking. With modernization of economic and political systems and institutions, uncertainty increases and some people living in tribal oriented cultures regress to older, more familiar, ways (traditional ways), believing that such actions will simplify the complexity of our globalizing world. They rely upon opinion leaders who sometimes distort traditional guides and norms and/or blame others for new difficulties. Many radio talk-show hosts become opinion leaders by oversimplifying issues and appealing to those with narrow and closed minded worldviews.
Daniel Goleman, in his book, Social Intelligence - The New Science of Human Relationships outlines in his Prologue how many people seem to tune out interactions with people around them. Do they do this because they have become saturated by too many inputs? Ken Gergen who wrote the book The Saturated Self - Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life, might say that they are saturated by the complexity of life in a pluralistic society. One common defense used by people with closed minds is to blame others for problems that arise.
3. Blaming is an important consideration because so many blame others from outside their group or community to preserve their own and/or their family's honor. Honor is especially important in parochial and tribal cultures, because the family plays an important role in administering systems of justice based on narrow perspectives and many people in these cultures lack the broad perspectives that help them respond to change on the world scene.
We find that some people do make commitments to communities that cover a wide range of scale (ranging from parochial to global) both in West and in the Middle East. For example, some professionals hold membership in global associations, in their town board, their family, and more.
4. As our personal web of relationships expand, we pass through transitions and reorganizations of our commitments and identities that are often stressful. We call these transitions at individual or personal levels by such names as; the terrible twos, an adolescent transition, or transition to an empty nest condition. Similarly, as societies pass through transitions, there is stress and violence. Muslim nations today, are passing through great transitions as people with tribal ways and scales of commitment run up against people with national, regional, and global scales. Many seem to support strengthening regressive ways. Someone has said that Islam is entering a stressful transition of reinterpretation and power struggles for controling the freedom that is necessary to update religious interpretation and organizational forms.
A few hundred years before the birth of Jesus, a widespread transition occurred wherein economic, social and religious traditions and values changed. Power began to shift from priest and temple to the marketplace and landlord. Other transitions were triggered as revolutions tried to redistribute power back to the people from corrupt elites and governments. The Protestant Reformation was one such transition, and some people say that Islam is entering a transition somewhat similar to that of the reformation.
5. Religious institutions are important. They are comprised of: norms, traditions, practices, rituals, sacred writings, doctrines, beliefs, meditation, hierarchical management organizational forms, schools, and charitable services for the community. These components of institutions, if well coordinated and integrated, work together to guide us, as individual believers and/or followers, as we expand our relationships, associations, knowledge, and commitments. They help us fulfill responsibilities to family, employer, nation and the United Nations. Religion is an institution that transcends any one society to include many nations with diverse ethno/cultural backgrounds that exist in diverse environments. Yet, large institutions need some kind of organizationsl structure and that leads to bureaucratic values based upon job security, personal advancement, and the bottom line to creep in. These latter trends weaken the effectiveness of the institution. We saw such trends in the Roman Catholic Church from the time of Constantine to the Protestant Reformation. We see them today in some mainline Christian denominations that are losing membership.
An important aspect of religious faith is the spiritual side generated from emotion-evoking experiences. These reach down into our unconscious to motivate feelings and emotions that energize us to respond according to our beliefs, values, and practices. They also play a role in relating us to transcendent forces. See my (16-page) E-book entitled: Relating to the Divine and Peacemaking for more on this topic.
Religions are the institutions responsible for guiding how we respond to our innate (or hardwired) need to relate to a transcendent caring other, as our lives progress through stages of human, moral, and faith development. I shall not go into detail on this important topic herein. I have done that in my short E-book mentioned in the foregoing paragraph.
There are other institutions in our social environment that guide and govern our struggle to balance needs and environment. They are the family, education, economy, and government. They are discussed in two Sections of my forthcoming book, entitled Countering Polarization.
6. Another important need for individuals and communities is justice. Justice hopefully is dispensed in ways that reduce harm to persons, their self images, their identities, and to communities. Honor is an important aspect of justice and in item #3 above, and in subsequent sections, I mentioned the role of honor in tribal communities. Ideally, systems of justice promote reconciliation rather than revenge. Guilt, shame and fear have been used by religious leaders to reduce the number of harmful acts. Fear of a judgmental father, tribal leader, policeman, or God, or a fear of going th Hell after death, or being reincarnated into a lower social class all work to keep some people to be caring and honest. Personal freedom limited by a fair and equitable system of justice is an ideal to which many aspire.
NOTE: In the absence of page numbers, I have added letters to identify each section so that if you need to refer to a few sentences, you should indicate the Chapter number and/or the sub-section letter, and the date when the posting was last updated to identify the location of the sentences.
A LOOK AT SOME TRANSITIONS WE FACE TODAY - A-3
At this point, I must recommend a book, Teaching and Learning Peace by Professor William M. Timpson. It is a book for school teachers and others who wish to guide their students to face differences and the need for change in ways that do not lead to hatred, conflict, and violence, but help people work together in peaceful ways to understand and appreciate each others perspectives. Timpson has travelled the world and participated in conferences where differences are overcome in ways that build peaceful habits and do not turn on fearful ego responses. He has led teach-ins and workshops wherein people can bridge differences constructively. I recommend his book most highly. It is most needed by religious and political leaders around the world, school teachers and others who face controversy and raw emotions at meetings and in classrooms.
Western societies have a need for oil , and that compounds the transitions of Eastern societies from tribal to global scales. Exploitation of the natural and labor resources of poverty stricken societies by the Western industrialized nations and corporations contributes to corruption and domination in Eastern, African, Latin American, and Asian societies. This is done through the self-oriented administration by local elites, by military occupation, and by terrorist reactions to exploitation and lack of opportunities. The mass media in the West spread our consumer-oriented values and market ideologies to further corrupt the morals of Asian, African, and some Latin American societies, as television, movies, and the internet have already corrupted Western ways.
Chomsky, Barber, Wink, listed in my Bibliography and others explain clearly how Western leaders, (corporate and governmental) promote neo-colonialist or imperial policies of domination and exploitation and control the mass media in ways that conceal the real intent behind their actions. Thus, Western leaders violate key requirements of free and democratic governance and justice.
To examine the context of Islam in America and the world today I will summarize the role of Islam as an institution and how it differs from Christianity in guiding lives of believers and their actions in political, natural and historic environments. The following outlines some of the considerations that influence today's transitions. I summarize and contrast Western and Muslim practices, beliefs, universal and cultural values, gender differences, organizational forms, teaching, governments, and more. Then, I present some verses from the Qur'an that Western writers have translated in different ways.
APPROACHES TO THE ISLAMIC FAITH - A-4
The following sections, first posted over two years ago, contain summaries of Islam's Beliefs and Acts of Worship. (Sometimes called The Six Elements and Five Pillars of Islam). This is followed by the basic values that are implied by the actions of most Muslims, a look into basic differences in cultural values and ideologies between Muslims and Christians, and effects on practices of assimilation into the American way of life and its associated cultural values. I respond to the question: "Why Do They Dislike, Hate, and/or Distrust Us?" I present estimates of the extent of participation in group prayer and activities in Islamic Centers in America and I explore customs and culture, woman's dress, wearing the scarf and personal freedom, marriage, divorce, child-care and health-care. At the end of this posting there is a selection of verses from the Qur'an and the Sunnah (sayings, actions, and practices of The Prophet - Muhammad that supplement the Qur'an). The sunnah also include narratives that describe actions. The reader will find many links to more detailed discussions and information about Islam as a religion and efforts to bring peace to the world in my forthcoming book, Countering Polarization.
There are many similarities between the three monotheistic faiths, starting from their roots in the stories about Abraham. These are summarized in Bruce Feiler's book, Abraham - A Journey to the Heart of Three Faiths.
In my short classes on Islam in America, I used Jane Smith's book entitled Islam in America. The following descriptions of Islam were derived from her book and are supplemented by additions suggested by a Muslim friend and obtained from books by other authors. A glossary defining Islamic terms is accessible at: Glossary. PLEASE NOTE: Books referred to herein are listed in my extensive Bibliography.
SIX BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE ISLAMIC FAITH - B
The Basic Elements, or Articles of Belief, summarize where Muslims place their trust. These elements are grounded in the Qur'an and are considered by Muslims to be non-negotiable. They are:
1. Faith in The One God, Allah, the Creator of all things. Allah has no partner, and there is no other entity in the entire universe worthy of worship besides Him.
2. Faith in the Existence and Reality of Angels, and their functions. Muhammad's encounter with God was through the angel Gabriel. Angels are the honored servants and are obedient to God.
3. Faith in God's messengers. All messengers are also prophets. Prophets communicated to specific communities or cultures, whereas messenger's communications have universal significance. Not all prophets are messengers. Those prophets that were also messengers are: Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Jesus was considered to be one of the greatest prophets, before Muhammad came. Muhammad is considered by Islam to be the final prophet and the greatest messenger.
4. Faith in the Holy Books: Torah, Bible, and the Qur'an. The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the final revelation. The Qur'an says that there were other Holy Books prior to the Torah. (Hindu writings are an example). Muslims believe that Jews and Christians have deviated from the Right Path as described in the Torah and the Bible. (See surah [5:66] in the Qur'an.). It is interesting to note that Gandhi similarly believed that the actions of many Christians were not consistent with the teachings of Jesus. (See Charles Kimball p. 28.). The Qur'an provides guidance for all aspects of life, including marriage, divorce, business, jurisprudence, charitable giving, etc..
5. Faith in the Day of Resurrection and Judgment. According to Jane Smith, in her book "Islam in America" - page 81, some Afro-American Muslims believe that a Mahdi, a divinely guided leader, will return "...to initiate the final period before the Day of Resurrection and Judgment." Seyyed Hossein Nasr, in The Heart of Islam page 72, wrote that the 12th Imam, al-Mahdi) "will appear publicly before the end of time, when inequity and oppression have become dominant, to reestablish peace on earth, and he will prepare for the second coming of Christ, an event in which Muslims have as firm a belief as Christians." Asma Hasan, in American Muslims also mentions that some Muslims believe in the second coming of Jesus on page 54.
NOTE: More information on the foregoing Element #5 - the Day of Resurrection and Judgment, is provided in the following verse from the Qur'an. [4.159] And there is not one of the followers of the Book but most certainly believes in this before his death, and on the day of resurrection he (Jesus) shall be a witness against them. Explanatory notes for this verse are included in Section AA at the end of this posting.
6. Faith in the existence of Fate, which means, as I interpret it, that Allah decides whom He will guide to the right path. Allah is all knowing. Or, as Asad writes in note #198 for 2:213 in his translation of the Qur'an, "God guides whomever He wills onto a straight way." Those who follow the wrong path are destined to suffer in the life to come. They are destined for the blazing flame. That is their fate. I discuss the impact of fatalism upon technological development in the latter half of my posting: Relating to the Divine and Peacemaking.
I highly recommend Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr's book, The Heart of Islam - Enduring Values of Humanity. His last few chapters are a most appropriate background for the following.
FIVE PILLARS OR PRACTICES - C
Responsibilities That Frame the Muslim Life, Support the World-Wide Muslim Community (Ummah), and Help With The Spiritual Side of Faith wherein one develops a faith-full relationship with the one Creator-God.
1. Testimony Concerning the Oneness of God and the Prophethood of Muhammad. One can lapse in following any of the other four Pillars, but not in this first one, called the shahada.
2. Performance of the five, daily ritual prayers (Salat), Including ritual washing beforehand, and touching one's forehead to the floor. Muslims pray at: Dawn, Noon, Afternoon, Just after Sunset, and Before Midnight. This practice aims to remind Muslims about God's compassion, mercy and final judgment - explained in the fifth Element outlined above. Conversing with transcendent powers and God through prayer, strengthens our spirituality. This is discussed in more detail in: Relating to the Divine and peacemaking.
3. Almsgiving (Zakat) 2.5% of the sum value of all one's possessions, each year, not just annual income, as some writers believe.
4. Fasting during the month of Ramadan during daylight hours. (Refraining from food, drink, tobacco, & sex). It is known that fasting, even if just during the daytime can generate feelings of euphoria in some persons.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in one's lifetime. This is a very strong and deep spiritual experience, somewhat like a pilgrimage to a holy place for Christians, especially Roman Catholics.
ISLAMIC VIRTUES AND VALUES - D
Basic virtues and valued characteristics derived from the Qur'an and Sunnah are: Honesty, Humility, Magnanimity, Truthfulness, Fairness, Hospitality, Charity, and Generosity. Other religious values are Commitment to Family, Commitment to the larger Muslim Community as well as the local community. Other writers add the values of: Social Justice, Pluralism and Compassion. Customs derived from old Muslim cultures are: modesty in dress - sports & music performances, not buying for show, and conducting romance and sex in private.
The following is a time-line of life for The Prophet – Muhammad. He was born in 570 a.d. His father died before He was born. His mother died when He was six years old. His grandfather cared for Him and then His uncle, the father of Ali cared for Him and took Him along on trips to Syria. This is how He learned the caravan trade. He was a caravan leader by 595 when He married Khadija, the owner of the caravan, who later became His first wife. He had his first Revelation in 610. Khadija died in 619. He moved to Medina in 622. 'Ayesha, His last wife, was very devoted to Him. He died in 632 at the age of 62. The Prophet lived 22 years after his first revelation. On the other hand Jesus' public activity lasted at most for several years at the end of his life which lasted some few years past age 30. This great difference in the length of time Jesus and The Prophet carried out their ministries is important to understanding the difference between the two faiths.
Muhammad, according to Nasr on page 35 of his book, exemplified humility, nobility, magnanimity, charity, truthfulness, and sincerity. Believers tried to follow His example. Muslims tend to emphasize responsibility along with individual rights. They de-emphasize accumulation of wealth and maldistribution of wealth. (Esposito,p. 124).
A Pashtun Saint, as I call him, Badshah Khan emphasized being wholly committed to compassionate service to the poor people. He transformed the fierce fighters living along the Afghan and Pakistan border into a non-violent group of 100,000 followers who faced the bullets of the British colonials for 17 years from 1929 to independence in 1947. He spend half of his life under arrest by the British and later the Pakistanis. His daily life of service to the villagers and heading political parties after independence was similar to that of Jesus and Mohandas Gandhi in their daily service to their people. Khan lived 98 years (1890-1988). The life of Badshah Khan shows the compassion, love and bravery that true Islam engenders. His life story appears in a book by Eknath Easwaran, entitled Nonviolent Soldier of Islam.
CONSIDER SOME DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE VALUES AND PRACTICES OF CHRISTIANS AND MUSLIMS - E
I believe that some of the frequent ideas and values communicated by Western media, and popular in the West, are disliked by many Muslims and some Westerners. "At the top of the list are: consumerism (buy, buy, buy) in America and on television, and commercial advertisements that degrade the good society and at times are most immodest and immoral. Such communications as the latter go against righteous living and preservation of high moral standards in the three Abrahamic faiths. For example, I believe that it is inhuman to interrupt dramatic and documentary presentations with almost equal time for commercials that teach kids to drive fast in 250-horsepower cars, and so on. Muslims see all this on TV. They are very tired of colonial and neocolonial exploitation of their national resources by the West. Colonials lived separately from Muslims and looked down on them as many Americans still look down upon African Americans and Mexican immigrants. Such discrimination has important effects upon a person's identity. These effects are discussed in section U of this posting.
The foregoing differences help provide some of the answers to the question many Americans asked after the tragedy of 9-11. "WHY DO THEY HATE US?" Some relevant historical background is discussed in the next two sections.
BACKGROUND OF COLONIALISM - F
Living under domination by a colonial power delays modernization of less developed societies. The occupation of nations in the Middle East and South Asia, by the British and French increased the separation between the peasant farmers, craftsmen, and small businessmen on the one hand and those puppets and military leaders supported by the colonial powers to maintain peace. These kinds of arrangements left very little hope of a better future for the majority of people in the lower classes. The poor received little education, in part because the colonial powers and the rich Muslims saw education as increasing the risk of political action by the restive poor. In the last century, increasing numbers of the poor moved into the larger cities, and saw the great difference between their lifestyles and those of the rich. This difference coupled with the coming of electronic communications has increased awareness of the increasing discrepancies, thus increasing the potential for change. Tradition-bound religious leaders stepped into this situation and kept the lower classes from threatening the puppet leaders supported by the West to maintain stability. Some clerics supported opposition to colonialism. The way many clerics interpreted Islamic law enabled them to mobilize the poor by preaching a simple and one-sided distortion of Islam. National leaders accepted some of the technology from the West, automobiles, appliances, medicine, and weaponry. They also accepted, in a concealed fashion, some of the Western immorality such as alcohol and immodest movies. Many in the upper class were taught in Christian schools or in Western schools abroad. On the other hand, many cultural aspects of modernity, were not allowed to spread among the general populace, in part, so as not to disturb the control of the lower classes by the more traditional religious leaders. The West is increasingly blamed for many of the social problems.
An interesting summary of some human rights issues under colonialist rule and subsequent independence is Chapter 7 in Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban's book Islamic Society in Practice.
Educational opportunities differed among the social classes. The upper classes who received a good education tended to support the European colonials and sought a Western way of life. They were mainly concerned with advancing and securing their modern way of life and ignored the plight of the poor. The poor who were educated by clerics who had little worldly education, received an inadequate general education, and resisted all change. In Egypt, and some other countries there was a middle group of persons educated in state schools that were inadequate.
ARROGANCE AND LACK OF COMPASSION - G
Muslims also see the great absence of compassion for the Palestinian people on the part of the Israelis and the US. The Israelis continue a policy of building settlements on West-bank land and daily harass and wage war on the Palestinians. The only defense available to the Palestinians, as they saw it, was suicide bombing. This is a complex issue that appears to be beyond the capabilities of American leaders to resolve. We continue to support the Israelis financially while ignoring Israeli transgressions against the Palestinians. Our leaders seem to lack the will, courage, and knowledge about diverse cultures that is required to resolve such issues peacefully. We appear arrogant and many of those involved act that way. People who follow exclusivist religious and/or political dogma are often unaware that they appear arrogant. ('Exclusivism' is defined below).
Even Canadian people look at Americans as arrogant, when they say such statements as: "We've done that before," "We do it this way," or "Why don't you do it our way?" Omid Safi in his May 2003 book, Progressive Muslims describes how the USA appears to be arrogant in his Introduction (pp. 4-5). In a National Security Strategy Report (9-2002) President Bush is quoted as stating: "Some worry that it is somehow undiplomatic or impolite to speak the language of right and wrong. I disagree with our President's emphasis on the duality of being right if you agree with him and wrong if you don't. Different circumstances require different methods, but not necessarily different moralities."
It appears to me that such ways of thinking are, in part, derived from closed minded persons getting too much of their information from radio talk show hosts. If they do read newspapers, they seem to lack the critical thinking skills to seek the truth. This implies that there is only one acceptable system of morality and one model for national success. This type of exclusivist thinking by a national leader implies that he or she knows what is right and what is wrong. Yet campaign speeches in the Fall of 2004 were riddled with what I viewed as contradictory statements about morality. Compassion for diverse others was absent in these talks. Some seemed to be against killing the unborn while tens of thousands of civilians were being killed in Iraq.
(See Diana Eck's definition of exclusivist, inclusivist, and pluralist, four paragraphs ahead of the following chart on Mosque attendance). How many listen to talk radio? Some sources follow.
(http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=84394750) (Chapter 12 and Conclusions).
(http://www.commondreams.org/views02/1203-08.htm).
(http://www.tvrundown.com/views/talkrad1.html).
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_radio)
(http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.org/narrative_radio_audience.asp?cat=3&media=8)
An article in Atlantic Monthly-April 2005 p. 51 entitled HOST by David Foster Wallace.
Authoritarian leaders in Saudi Arabia are supported by oil money and they ignore the common people or let clerics, who rely upon puritanical versions of Islam (Wahhabi versions), pacify the people. As long as the Saudi leaders do not challenge the top few percent that are inhumanely wealthy, the Saudi elite let the clerics manage the remainder of the population and also assist them to send money overseas, money with strings attached.
In this age of e-mail, radio, cell phones, and television, the poor are increasingly aware of: the extent to which they lack a good education and adequate material goods. They have little hope of ever satisfying their needs; they are increasingly becoming aware of why they are held back and that their needs are ignored by the leadership. The USA is seen as a neocolonial demon that prolongs their fight against corrupt governments and clerics who distort the faith for selfish purposes.
No matter what our government says, I believe oil is one of the important considerations behind our invasion of Iraq. Rebuilding the Iraqi infrastructure will be paid for with Iraqi oil money and was contracted out to American firms such as Haliburton. Kimball, on the top of page 109 of When Religion Becomes Evil wrote that in countries wherein Muslims are in the majority, "When most avenues for political change appear to be blocked, more and more individuals and groups are attracted to revolutionary Islamist movements."
For those who wish to understand "Why Do They Dislike, Hate, and/or Distrust Us?" it is also helpful to understand the difference between approaches to human rights and freedom in a secular society from those in a religiously spiritual society. I recommend reading Chapter 7 in Seyyed Hossein Nasr's book The Heart of Islam. He examines this difference in very clear terms. See also What's Right With Islam by Imam Feisal Abdul Rauf. {This book, published in May 2004, is well written with a Foreword by Karen Armstrong, and is highly recommended).
I listed six answers to the question - Why Do They Hate Us? in my book, Countering Polarization mentioned above.
Even in the USA, Islamic values are weakened as Muslim immigrants and their descendants become exposed to our way of life. Both Christian and Muslim values of modesty, thriftiness, honesty, and caring for others are violated by the mass media - television, movies, the internet and radio, along with the print media. A chart in Section H shows the frequencies of involvement in congregational practices and activities by Muslims in America and by Christians in America.
EFFECTS OF ASSIMILATION INTO AMERICAN SOCIETY AND MAINSTREAM CULTURE - H
In Section B, I summarize the basic practices of those who follow the Muslim faith. But some follow these practices more strictly than others do. This statement applies equally well to people who call themselves Christians. A survey on Muslim values by Haddad and Lummis done in 1983-84 indicates that the percentage of Muslims who disagreed that young men 18 and older should be allowed to date, was 51 percent among immigrants, 23 percent among first generation and 11 percent among second generation American Muslims. (page 141, Figure 5.1 in Islamic Values in the United States).
In a similar vein, an article by Adrian Campo-Flores in Newsweek magazine, 3-21-05, page 51 on a study of Hispanic immigrants remaining in the Roman Catholic Church indicated that Hispanics in America showed that 72 percent of first generation Hispanics were Catholic, and 52 percent of the third generation were Catholic.
ATTENDANCE AT RELIGIOUS SERVICES & PRAYER HABITS OF MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS
MUSLIM PARTICIPATION ACCORDING TO PLACE OF BIRTH
Place of Birth: US Lebanon India/Pakistan Other
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Attend mosque once a week or more, (p. 26) 50% 41% 53% 58%
Often Prayed 5 Times a Day, (p. 29) 14% 31% 34% 26%
79% of the Muslims, who had children, said the children attend weekly
(for lessons in religion and Arabic).
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SOURCE: Haddad & Lummis 1983-4 Survey of: Islamic Values in the U.S.
(based on 343 surveys)
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SURVEYS OF PRAYER AND/OR WORSHIP SERVICE ATTENDANCE BY MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS*
Frequency of Attending Percentage of Muslims Percentage of Christians
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Never attended in past year. 10% [12% for Christians in 1988-89]
(p. 121 in Roof's book)
Mostly on Holidays and a bit more 20%
Once every other month 6%
Once every month 4%
Usually twice a month 9%
Weekly 39% [36% for Christians: in 1988-89]
Twice a week or more 12%
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DATA SOURCES:
* MUSLIM data from: Haddad & Lummis's 1983-4 Survey of 343 households (p. 27)
CHRISTIAN data from: W.C. Roof's Spiritual Marketplace a 1988-9 survey of
2620 households (p. 121)
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It is surprising how similar percentages for Muslims in America are to those for Christians.
Almost a third (30% in a Gallup poll conducted in 1984) of Americans describe themselves as born-again Christians. Many of them (over 90% of the born-againers) believe that every word in the Bible must be read literally and denying that there can be any scientific and historical errors in the Bible. (Armstrong, in The Battle for God p. 354). My guess is that, among Muslims in America, the equivalent proportion for strict, literal interpretations of the Qur'an is close to 30%. It is higher for students here temporarily and for some recent immigrants from fundamentalist small town life in Pakistan and its neighbors.
THE SHARIA (THE LAW) - I
Islam appears to follow ancient Judaism with its focus on following the law (Sharia). Some Muslims view this as in some ways like a constitution, because the Sharia covers many aspects of daily life. If you live right, are compassionate, and follow the example of Muhammad, in that way you will get to heaven. Struggle (jihad) to control your inner drives for they can lead you astray and learn and witness more about the guidance in the Qur'an and Hadiths. (Hadiths are sayings and actions of The Prophet. The plural of hadith is ahadith. The Sunnah include all ahadith and include stories about the doings and wonts of The Prophet).
Note: A struggle to control your inner drives is the primary meaning of "jihad". The more often heard "holy war" meaning seen in the media is primarily meant for defensive purposes, if attacked. This latter meaning has been distorted by some extreme militants who view American neo-colonial policies as an attack upon Islam.
In preparing for a meeting on Muslim extremists and the Majority of Muslims who are moderates, I found the following from a new book by Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl, an accomplished Islamic jurist and scholar. A professor at the UCLA School of Law, his book is entitled: The Great Theft - Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. The following views on Muslims and jihadic Hadith also come from Karen Armstrong's book Holy War - the Crusades and Their Impact on Today's World, p. 40-41, and John Esposito's book, Unholy War, p. 67. Another book by El Fadl, entitled, The Place of Tolerance in Islam includes, in 115 pages, discussions presented by eleven other writers and a reply by El Fadl that clarifies the question of whether politically oriented interpretations of the Qur'an used to justify violence abrogate the many (El Fadl mentions the number - 124) verses that call for tolerance and peace.
Interpretation of the Qur'an is supplemented by the Sunnah, which El Fadl says refers to the Hadith which purport "to quote the Prophet verbatim", as well as to "narratives purporting to describe the conduct of the Prophet and his companions".
Karen Armstrong, described how in the seventh century, "to justify this apparent violation of Mohammad's principles (urging soldiers to fight humanely), Muslim jurists began to develop a theology of the jihad....it was the duty of the Muslim state to conquer the rest of the non-Muslim world..." "By the beginning of the eighth century, the jihad effort had burned out." In my view, the many Arabic pagan, warring tribes had been converted to belief in One God. After the crusades interpretations emphasizing violent jihad seemed to revive. It seems that some Americans on the far right, and some Muslim clerics today, have taken the post-crusade interpretation as always existing and in the Qur'an.
On the other hand, Esposito wrote: "Ibn Khaldun, an acclaimed medieval historian, [in the late 1300's after the Crusades]"...wrote; "In the Muslim community, holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the Muslim mission and (the obligation to) convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force". Other medieval authors, like their Christian counterparts, went even further, teaching that the purpose of jihad is to rid the earth of unbelievers." An Egyptian jurist Mahmud Shaltut, former rector of al-Azhar University, argued that jihad was to be only against "unbelievers who had assailed the Muslim mission."
R. Scott Appleby, in his book The Ambivalence of the Sacred, page 93, states: "Finally, [Qutb, in the mid 1990's] gave an extremist interpretation of a traditional precept - jihad - and justified the interpretation...that Jihad is not about the defense of a national homeland, Qutb insists. Rather, it is a command to extend the borders of Islam to the ends of the earth."
If the West had worked to stop oppressing the Muslims in Palestine and the rest of the Middle East, provide hope for promising futures for the youth, and help them move toward Democracy, we might have been farther advanced toward peace than we seem to be in October 2006. The USA says they have been doing this. However, by bombing tens of thousands of civilians and their homes, and by hiring corrupt Western firms to help rebuild, they chose self-oriented policies that make it almost impossible for the moderate majority of Muslims to move peaceably toward a Democracy that is compatible with the high moral standards in the Qur'an.
Had we been unselfish in our responses and provided a more hopeful economic and political future for all the young people in the Middle East, the violent jihadic interpretations we have experiences over the last several years would lose their influence and terrorist activities might well have begun to subside by now.
Christianity, with its emphasis on following Jesus' teachings, living a compassionate life and accepting Him in order to be saved, places less emphasis on following rules to the letter. Many of these rules are vestiges rooted in patriarchal tribal cultures that preceded the birth of Jesus, and the birth of The Prophet Muhammad, about 570 years after Jesus' birth. Islam supports freedom for the individual to follow the Real Intent behind the rules. Because most literalists follow only parts of their holy books, it is difficult to find data on the percentage of Christians and Muslims who follow to the letter, the guidelines and values in their holy scriptures. Strict and sometimes extremist followers of Jesus and Muhammad believe that their interpretations are the absolute and only truth. This is an exclusivist orientation as defined by Diana L. Eck of Harvard University.
According to Appleby (p. 13), Diana Eck, in her book Encountering God, describes "...three broad orientations to religious and ethnic diversity...."; exclusivist, inclusivist and pluralist. "The exclusivist is an enclave builder - one who insists that there is only one way of understanding reality and interpreting the sacred. They tend to be closed- minded. The inclusivist, by contrast, holds that while there are many viable religious traditions, communities, and truths, one particular tradition is the culmination of the others and is superior to others or comprehensive enough to include the others in a subordinate position." A significant number of Christians believe this about their version of Christianity and a significant number of Muslims believe this about their version of Islam.
"Finally, the pluralist holds that truth is not the exclusive possession of any one tradition or community; rather, a diversity of communities and traditions is seen not as an obstacle to be overcome but as an opportunity for energetic engagement and dialog with others." "...The pluralist does not give up particular commitments to aspects of his or her faith, but risks transformation by participating in a dialogue that could lead to mutual discovery." In my view, the pluralistic person has a personal identity that is secure enough to allow her/him to be proactive in seeking interaction with diverse others and to understand their perspectives. The exclusivist seems to avoid dialogue as a means to preserve his/her fragile worldview and identity.
A very well written and readable book about the Bedouin way of life, that into which The Prophet Muhammad was born, is The Saudi's - Inside The Desert Kingdom by Sandra Mackey. Her Chapter 6 - Bedouin Pride - describes the Bedouin value system, honor system, justice system, and patriarchal and family basis for life. It will be most difficult to change this culture to expand the scale of commitment from family to nation.
Emmanuel Todd, an anthropologist, on pages 20-49 of his book After the Empire described his interpretation of how, for example, Arab family structures can explain certain aspects of radical Islamism. Arab culture aspires to "combine egalitarianism with a specific conception of community that has difficulty establishing a strong state." The tendency in some Muslim countries for endogamous marriage between first cousins, exemplified by marriages between the children of two brothers sets patterns for authority in a paternalistic society that after modernization makes commitment to state authority difficult. Todd described how people in many preindustrial societies pass through a violent transition as they enter the modern way of life in urban-industrial settings. I believe that the required changes in identity and commitment from family to state, create stress that translates to blaming others and leads to violence. Todd mentioned a number of examples and tried to explain variations in terms of literacy, birth rate, and other considerations.
INTERACTIONS AMONG POLITICAL, EDUCATIONAL, AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS - J
This section is taken from Section H in Chapter 2 of my E-Book.
I mentioned in Chapter 1 the work of Walter Wink and Emmanuel Todd. Both of them contribute to different ways of thinking about institutions and the powers that are supported by the norms and values that comprise institutions. At this point, I introduce the idea of institutional change wherein the institutions of economy, polity, education and religion are involved together. It is impossible to change one institution without changes in the other institutions.
We are living in times of rapid change as cultures clash on our shrinking globe. The writings of Emmanuel Todd After the Empire and Walter Wink The Powers That Be have led me to think about societal institutions - which are comprised of roles, norms, values, and organizational forms that often become habits or traditions. The roles and positions filled by those who work in the organizations that represents the institutions define the influence that workers wield within the organization and beyond. The powers that are associated with the leaders of these institutions have spiritual roots that extend deep down into our unconscious. For example many Roman Catholics revere their Pope. Shiite Muslims revere their Ayatollah. In the institution of a nuclear family deserving fathers and/or mothers are loved, revered, and internalized by their children. A favorite school teacher might be internalized by a student. Many Christians have internalized an image of Jesus and in the words of the Hymn, In the Garden, "He walks with me and He talks with me."
Adapting to and confronting aspects of cultural change is stressful and the responses to such stress are evident, especially in young people trying to develop secure personal identities and to make choices about commitments to ideas, groups, political parties and careers.
Consider the ideas of George Lakoff, (Moral Politics) a linguist, who has analyzed how people react to certain key words and symbols that arouse emotions rooted in their unconscious. These reactions cause them to close their minds and become unable to listen and think critically. Often, they do this subconsciously, without realizing how they are being manipulated. Combine that idea with the fact that excessive television watching from babyhood on affects brain development to lower attention spans, and in some, it leads to attention deficit disorders that make learning more problematical. We have already witnessed the application and exploitation of this television syndrome in the proliferation of 15-second sound bytes in advertising and election campaigns. These reactions are a danger to democratic societies because a true democracy depends upon people listening to diverse others discussing differences, understanding differences and striving toward consensus.
Walter Wink, in his first Chapter describes the powers that the Bible speaks about using such terms as the Dragon (Revelations 12) to represent the dominating Roman Empire. These powers include educational, political, military, and religious institutions, but there is also a spiritual aspect that extends deep down into the unconscious of persons affected by the institutions and the leaders of the institutions.
In their early years, Saudi boys are influenced in ways that determine how they will react to strict leaders and to women. Coming under the strict domination of their father at age seven, I believe, will influence their image of God as an adult. For example, in Islam, and also in Christianity, those boys who have a strict, punitive father can make them easy prey to those extremist religious clerics and teachers who emphasize an authoritarian image of God. On the other hand, if their father is kind and compassionate, they are less likely to view God as authoritarian.
The ambiguities one encounters in times of social and cultural change make it difficult for young men to manage development of a strong and secure identity and worldview. Such change often requires individuals to change the priorities of their values and commitments. For example, young persons learn that career opportunities in the cities provide more choices that they can find in their village. But, to seek these new opportunities, one must decrease commitments to family and learn about making commitments to ones school, craft, or trade in the city. Traditional worldviews seldom provide clear guidance for such changes. The ambiguities produced by these changes increase stress within families and with the youth facing decisions about moving to the new and more complex world of city life.
I have seen the variety of responses to change when rural people moved to the towns to work in textile mills. In some rural areas in the America of the 1950's and 60's schools tried to help prepare students for these changes, whereas in other areas the young people had to adapt without help. Sometimes church leaders helped in the readjustments. Radio and popular magazines helped by dramatizing these changes in their programming and stories. Remember that in the middle of the twentieth century, the influence of television was much different than it is now, and there was no internet.
I believe that the levels of stress are much greater in the developing countries of the Middle East. The rate of change is faster and television and the internet now focus on the negative aspects of city life to a much greater degree. The problems of stress are compounded further by the emphasis on honor and blaming in that part of our world. The changes have come so quickly that Muslim clerics and other educators have not had experience or training to help in these transitions. The result is that many leaders have chosen to regress to more fundamental guidelines associated with the Qur'an and the traditions of patriarchal cultures. Experience with living under colonial domination further compounds the problems of change.
I believe that these inner struggles can lead to the violence similar to that which Emmanuel Todd finds when a culture is changing from a patriarchal pre-industrial form to a modern form. In countries that are undergoing economic development, the stresses produced by change are great, and political, educational, and religious leaders try to help reduce the stress. In some cases they help by reinforcing fundamental religious guidelines. In other cases the leaders have the resources to help the young persons prepare for and adapt to the new situations through counseling and training for employment in this computer age. When leaders lack experience with such changes, they sometimes blame progress for the stress and the discord or violence that can result. Understanding how leaders in developing countries respond to helping reduce or exploiting the stresses produced by change, helps explain the attraction of the fundamentalist responses of the Taliban and terrorist groups.
WOMEN IN THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY - K
The following quotations on family life are from Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban's book Islamic Society in Practice (Chapters 4 & 7). She is an anthropologist. Also, the 4th Chapter in the Qur'an has many verses dealing with the rights of women. A web site from the University of Michigan posts the whole Qur'an and includes a word-search capability that is most helpful. The URL is: (http://www.hti.umich.edu/k/koran/).
She wrote: "The individual is not separate from the family, and you (the visiting anthropologist) become something like an extension of the family and may be addressed as "daughter" or "sister", or "brother". The matter of offering payment for our stay would have been ridiculous and insulting, so the appropriate thanks was to bring specialty foods and gifts that would be enjoyed collectively." (p. 61 in Fluehr-Lobban's book).
"Family and lineage represent the largest measure of one's identity"(64). That is why honor is so important, as in most tribal societies, which are patriarchal. (i.e. the families of Romeo & Juliet). Honor and shaming are a tribal form of parochial justice, but our globalized economies and communication systems now need justice systems that function on national and global scales. "The notion of rapid and unlimited social mobility, which we in parts of the West believe exists as a reward for hard work and merit, is generally not part of the Muslim worldview"(p. 65). I believe that the conservative Muslim interpretation is that display of wealth is a form of bragging that does not fit well in their parochial system of honor. There are Muslims who display wealth to Americans, but keep it hidden from other Muslims who are not close friends. Fluehr-Lobban wrote: "The Western idea of falling in love with someone whom you met casually at a bus stop, at a cafe, or, perish the thought, at a singles bar, is considered dangerous and barbaric." (p. 68).
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AFFECTING THE NORMS OF MODESTY AND WEARING THE VEIL - L
There are several chapters in Leila Ahmed's book Women and Gender in Islam that provide the pre-Islamic history of modesty, such as the different ways in which Muslims viewed modesty and the wearing of a scarf. In pre-Islamic times, agricultural communities in the Middle East tended to treat women's rights as being equal to those of men in many areas of life. A number of communities followed matriarchal family structures. These are cultural aspects, not necessarily theological aspects.
As trade increased and tradesmen and craftsmen moved to cities and traveled far from home on trade expeditions, the culture changed to patrilocal families. Men, in those times, were quite free to have sex with prostitutes and with their own slaves without dishonoring their own reputation. When away from home for extended periods, men took advantage of this freedom. However to protect the honor of the family, the women and young virgins of the family were to safeguard their purity. Male relatives escorted them when out of the home and they dressed modestly for a number of reasons. Some relied on modesty to display that they were pure. This is the culture into which Islam began to spread.
The code of Hammurabi specified which women were to wear the veil. Harlots and slaves did not wear the veil. The wealthy women wore the veil, as did concubines accompanying their mistresses and former sacred prostitutes, now married.(p. 14 in Ahmed). The veil signaled to men: which women were under male protection, and which were fair game. Many of the Mesopotamian laws influenced Jewish and Islamic laws. In general after the Christian era, Christian and Islamic law did not give women the level of equality with men as did the Code of Hammurabi. Classical Greek times, before the birth of Christ also saw women wearing the veil when out in public. Some even wore gloves.
During Muhammad's lifetime in Arabia the society was changing to be more patriarchal. This trend might have been started when Muslim believers, in the early days of Islam in Medina, were molested, and by covering up when out in public they would not arouse suspicion among the hypocrites (halfway believers).(p. 54 in Ahmed). Many visitors came to the mosque and the close presence of strangers also made some wish to protect the women, especially Muhammad's wives by covering. Some visitors hoped for personal advantages by speaking with Muhammad's wives before they spoke with Muhammad. Leila Ahmed, in Chapter 8 of Women and Gender in Islam describes historical trends in the use of the veil and explains changes.
DRESS AND MODESTY - M
Dress is treated on pages 108-110. Modest dress for both men and women is important. But what is "modest"? Covering hair? Some believe, seeing a woman's hair turns men on. The Qur'an has verses that prescribe modest dress. However, what is modest differs from one culture to another. Wearing the scarf (hijab) became important after the humiliating defeat in the 1967 Israeli-Arab War. "Hair traditionally has been considered a woman's most alluring aspect to be revealed only to her husband or immediate family".(p. 109). The scarf and veil became signs of modesty, chastity, their allegiance to Islam, and a manifestation of Islamic revival. In America, some African Americans and Anglo converts are more "...consistent in wearing clothing that covers everything except their hands and face".(p. 109). This act is most likely to reinforce and symbolize their new identity. Other American-born Muslims do not dress so conservatively. Some American Muslims have not been promoted on their job, because they wore a scarf. Other American-Muslim women believe that the mark of a good Muslim should be her behavior and not her appearance.
Fluehr-Lobban, in her book Islamic Society in Practice, published in 1994, presented several reasons why some Muslim women wear the veil or head-scarf. On page 146, she wrote: "This was and continues to be a means of providing modesty and offering protection from the unwanted gazes or physical jostling of strange men in public areas. ... women have taken to this cultural-religious expression because of its authenticity and congruence with national heritage, because of its practicality and simplicity, and because of its religious meaning." It also has utility in particular situations as a means of presenting one's identity.
WOMEN IN THE MOSQUE - N
In American mosques, women who might be second or third generation Americans found that the recent influx of more traditionally conservative members from Pakistan resulted in pressure being exerted on them to cover up more.(pp. 110-111 in Jane Smith's book - Islam in America). Many women dress more conservatively when going to the mosque. So do (or did) many Christians in some cultures. In some Islamic centers and Mosques, women go to the basement for prayer services. In more liberal Mosques, women might be allowed to sit behind the men. Muhammad encouraged women to be full participants in the worship life of His young community. But later the men removed them from public life. Separation of women from the men during religious services among the Orthodox Jews today is an old tradition that persists for the religious group also.
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF WOMEN - O
Jane Smith's book Islam in America, Chapter 5, describes roles and responsibilities of women on page (p. 105) - separate spaces for women at worship, in meetings and other public gatherings, and in the homes of strict Muslim believers in Saudi Arabia when males who are not close relatives are visiting. Smith quoted comments from a woman who attended a conference in 1997. She said: "This is not forced segregation ... often we just feel more comfortable being able to relax with our friends, not worry if our knees happen to touch those of the man next to us and enjoy a time of comradeship and even a little friendly gossip. Besides, if we object to what is being said we can do it as a block, or in a small group."
Smith discussed inheritance rights on page 106. "Women inherit only half of what men inherit." But, the man gives the woman a dowry that is hers for life and she keeps any other money that is hers. In court, "... the testimony of two women is required to equal that of one man in a court of law."
DATING, MARRIAGE, AND DIVORCE - P
Dating opportunities were severely restricted and eligible partners had opportunities to meet mainly at holiday festivals, weddings and funerals. Most meeting opportunities were chaperoned. In these modern times newspaper, magazine and internet meeting services are used to help persons find partners who might be suitable for each other. Woman needed a male escort from her family to go outside the home in traditional societies in order to protect the honor of the whole family. A book by Norma Khouri describes how modern young women in Amman, Jordan responded to such strict dating practices.
Marriage and Divorce are topics that Smith treats on pages 112-119. The Qur'an states that under certain conditions a Muslim man can marry up to four wives, with the requirement that each wife is treated with equal respect. Traditional societies had no place for the unmarried woman, and thus this form of polygamy helped the husbandless woman. However, in America, the Muslim husband sometimes determined the religion of the children, which created problems for Christian women who married Muslim men. Matchmakers (p. 117) also helped families find suitable mates for their unmarried young adults. The parents approach to marriage for their children was influenced by two primary factors. One was that the social, religious, and class background of the pair be similar and the second was that the girl's family would increase the influence and wealth of the future husband's family. Thus some girls were strongly urged, in some cases forced, to marry someone whom they did not like as a spouse.
See also, Norma Khouri's story of the lives, in Jordan, of two young women, a Christian and a Muslim, who together ran a hair-cutting salon in Amman, Jordan. The title is: "Honor Lost - Love and Death in Modern-Day Jordan. I recommend this book highly.
A book edited by Geoffrey Orens, entitled: The Muslim World presents a brief summary description of the Muslim World, based upon reprints of articles and excerpts from journals and books that discuss the history, current issues, and trends in religion, politics, and related social issues. I recommend, 3 chapters on women in Section 3, pp. 71-95.
For a brief, but good discussion of how practicing religion in a new cultural context affects old beliefs and traditions, see the writing of Professor Naguib in Norway on pages 167-173 in Haddad and Smith's reader entitled Muslim Minorities in the West. These pages also cover a story about kidnapping of an 18-year old Moroccan girl, whose parents were Norwegian citizens living on social security, but who wished their daughter to marry a man in Morocco - a man of her parents choice, but a marriage that was against her will. Naguib also discussed the changing symbolism of the veil.
The treatment of women is a complex issue because since 1882 when the British occupied Egypt, the colonialist period affected differently, the upper class Muslim bureaucrats, the middle class businessmen and the lower classes. We see this today when celebrities and the wife of our own president are protected by chauffeur-driven limousines protected by secret service men and darkened windows.
Today, there are still some Muslims who interpret very strictly, the rule not to touch a woman who is not a relative and will not even shake hands with the other sex. They might be tempted to adulterous feelings. Others interpret that rule as applying to sexual advances only.(Haddad & Lummis pp. 30 & 135). Remember what President Carter said about thinking about a beautiful attractive woman? It is like coveting one's neighbor woman.
Some of the writers, such as Qassim Amin at the turn of the century, who tried to move their country toward modernity belittled the Muslim ways and saw the veil as a symbol of the old ways. See Armstrong's "The Battle for God", pages 164-166. This inspired a backlash that acted to turn the veil into a symbol against colonialism.
In sum, there appear to be many reasons given for wearing the veil and for not wearing it. The choice, if women have the freedom to choose, depends upon the particular schooling, family and working situations of each woman.
Selected quotations from the Qur'an, about women and their roles, appear near the end of this posting.
CHILD CARE AND CARE OF THE ELDERLY - Q
Children and youth, baby sitters(p. 119) and child care(p. 107) similarly pose problems for tradition-bound parents and children who try to follow a more modern life-style. Being home with the kids is important, but day-care, if run by Muslims in an Islamic way, is becoming accepted by some born in America.(p. 107).
Care of the Elderly similarly creates problems of responsibility for caring for aging parents. Traditional families would never consider placing an elderly parent in an assisted living situation.(p. 123).
A STORY ABOUT HEALTH-CARE FOR MUSLIMS IN N. CAROLINA, 1986 - R
The following summary was taken from pages 308-312 in : Muslims on the Americanization Path?" Edited by Haddad & Esposito, 2000.
A Pakistani woman was diagnosed with Sinus Cancer in 1986 and was taken to Duke Univ. Medical Center, Durham, N.C. The family only permitted medical treatment when the rules of Islamic Law were satisfied. Islam sets proscriptions on contact between men and women who are not relatives. The family made sure that no male doctor was alone with the woman. At least one daughter remained in the examination room at all times during meetings with male doctors. To avoid touching, more costly noninvasive tests were done. Two daughters stayed with their mother in the room at night, in case one had to go out and a male doctor were to come in.
The mother's death in the ER heightened the stakes. In the night four sisters and their brother brought their mother to the ER. They refused to send her body to the morgue. For many hours, they stayed with the body and read the appropriate chapter in the Qur'an, until it was possible to transport the body to a funeral home. There the Muslims carried out preburial rituals; bathing and perfuming the body without using alcohol. Daughters waited with the body in the funeral home for three days until the papers arrived to permit flying the body back to Pakistan.
FOUNDATIONS OF RELIGIONS THAT HAVE PASSED THE TEST OF TIME - S
Let's look at four main aspects of approaches to faith and compare Islam to Christianity in how these approaches differ and how much they work in similar ways. These are described in Chapter 8 of John Cobb's book Grace and Responsibility, were taken from John Wesley and appear in The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church. This living core, as they believed, stands revealed in scripture, illumined by tradition, vivified in personal and corporate experience, and confirmed by reason. I remember this quadrilateral by the acronym -REST (reason, experience, scripture, and tradition).
I believe that these four concepts relate closely to those described by Seyyed Hossein Nasr in his book, "Knowledge and the Sacred". For example, Nasr's term "sapiential knowledge" is knowledge derived from experiences such as tasting or seeing. I believe that, at least, experiences are partly symbolic, which I interpret as the result of emotion-evoking experiences. Such experiences are recalled when one revisits the place where the experience first occurred. Sapiential knowledge contributes to feelings and emotions. It thus contributes to what is felt as sacred to the person who Experiences the joy or sadness that occurred. Scripture, or the holy stories, sensitize one to the emotions of joy from such experiences.
Tradition guides the believer along the path (illumines the path) to help the believer get into the appropriate frame of mind to experience strong emotions and, sometimes, ecstasy. Traditions: practices, myths, and stories from Scripture and from live witnessing help people relate to transcendent perspectives that reach deep down into their unconscious. Reason helps fit all of the above together in a coherent fashion. Eventually after freeing oneself from daily and egoistic concerns, one might experience ultimately a union with God or the Whole Universe. I believe that Muslims would call this communion with the Whole Reality - God.
Nasr describes how the West has surrendered to modernity, transferring much of its faith from the spiritual - sapiential way of knowing - to the rational, objective and scientific way of knowing. Thus it has lost important traditional practices and experiences that are, in part, essential for relating to the spiritual and to God.
It would be a very rewarding to contrast Cobb's book with Nasr's. Although Nasr's Knowledge and the Sacred was written in 1981 and Cobb's Grace and Responsibility was written in 1995, their points of view show some similar approaches to basic aspects of the spiritual side of religion. They both discuss responsibility and its relation to freedom. There are similarities in the area of spiritual growth described by the quadrilateral and there are similarities in tolerance toward other faiths since we all worship the same God. On page 293 Nasr wrote: "... all paths lead to the same summit." For more detail, see my posting Transcendence and Spirit.
On page 40 of The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church (1980) the pioneers of Methodism (Wesley, et al.) seemed to be quite up-to-date in their tolerance of diversity. They stated: "As to all opinions that do not strike at the root of Christianity, we think and let think." "But even as they were fully committed to the principles of toleration and doctrinal pluralism, they were equally confident that there is a "marrow" of Christian truth that can be identified and that must be conserved." John Cobb mentions this statement on page 135 of his Grace and Responsibility.
There are many similarities between the two faiths, starting from their roots in the Abraham story. See Bruce Feiler's book entitled Abraham.
ON EXCLUSIVISM AND CLOSED MINDS - T
Some Christian leaders help their followers to think critically, and by so doing, educate themselves about Christian doctrines and beliefs, stories and metaphors. On the other hand, there are other Christian leaders who teach doctrines and "right" beliefs to their followers and keep them from learning about other faiths for fear that it might weaken their own faith. Such leaders remind me a story about an evangelical Christian, Charles Kimball, who was told not to listen to a college professor teaching a course about religion.
On page 97 of his book When Religion Becomes Evil, Charles Kimball described how he had been very involved in Campus Crusade for Christ and in Young Life, having read most of the books his leaders had recommended. When, at age 19, he decided to take a religion course in the college of arts and sciences at a state university, he described the reaction of most of his friends and the religious leaders whom he knew as "...swift and decisive. "Don't do it," they warned. "Those professors will try to undermine your faith by confusing you with questions. They don't believe the Bible is true."
This story is a prime example of how one's peers and one's teachers sometimes try to lead a person to close his or her mind in order to defend a naive approach to their faith. The teacher and friends might believe that they are saving the person from being confused, from fear, and from the stresses of ambiguity and uncertainty. However, cognitive dissonance (learning something that you never thought of before and that disagrees with your presumptions) is often a key to learning, especially if you trust and respect your teacher.
Techniques of thought control have been used for years to defend particular political ideologies and religious faiths. Thought control does not allow young persons to explore how others relate to their image of God. But, working to understand how others approach a relationship to God helps one to learn what aspects of her own faith might be universal and in this way strengthens her faith.
Kimball writes that when a religious leader claims that he knows: the absolute truth, the one path to God, or the only correct way of interpreting a sacred text; then he implies that all other truth claims and interpretations are blasphemy. In such cases, Kimball describes the leader's religion as becoming evil. Such is the approach of demagogues who attract persons who have low tolerance for ambiguity and fear the changes that they confront in their increasingly diverse societies. We have such demagogues in American Christianity, and Islam has their share also.
About the same time that Kimball's book was published another was published by James Waller, entitled: Becoming Evil - How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. Waller is a Psychology Professor at Whitworth College, Kimball a Professor of Religion at Wake Forest University. Waller summarizes research in the fields of psychology and social-psychology and focuses on how ordinary individuals are affected by group membership, ethnocentrism, xenophobia, social desire for dominance, cultural belief systems, moral disengagement, rational self interest, social forces, professional socialization and more. His study is a bottoms up approach whereas Kimball starts from religion and social conditions that lead demagogues to distort religion by emphasis on the absolute truth of selected doctrines, holy war, establishing an ideal time, blind obedience, and situations wherein the end justifies means that are not consistent with the major tenets of the religion.
A rewarding contrast would be to try and blend the ideas of Nasr with those that Charles Kimball discusses in his book, When Religion Becomes Evil. Nasr, on page 182 in his book, Knowledge and the Sacred wrote that intelligence is knowledge of the Absolute. Nasr frequently uses the term Absolute to refer to God. This term bothers me, because I believe that only a few believers can figuratively climb to the top of the mountain to have an experience of union with the Ultimate Reality or Absolute. I believe that the two writers use the word "absolute" differently. Kimball uses it as an adjective modifying "truth" and Nasr uses it as a noun referring to God.
Mariana Caplan in her book Halfway Up the Mountain describes how many Americans raised on fast food and drive-in services, try to reach the mountain top (have a peak experience) during a weekend retreat. However, most spiritual leaders say that it takes years to build a repertoire of experiences and traditions to help one reach an authentic peak experience. The Absolute and Perfect Truth does exist, but some closed minded persons use those terms deceptively to add credence to their ideas and capture the minds and souls of their followers. In this way they lead them astray.
There are some Muslims believers and teachers who are not highly educated in spiritual matters, especially in countries that have many of their people trying to survive on very low incomes. Some of these Muslims tend to follow similar closed-mind policies and are easily misled by demagogues.
Many theologians are very much aware that God's eternal Word never has been, nor can be, exhaustively expressed in mere words. There are many interpretations that vary depending on the experiences of the interpreter. Here again some Muslims do not feel at ease with interpretations made by others who are present-day scholars of the Qur'an who have different ideas and interpretations. Muslims believe the words in the Arabic Qur'an were dictated by God, through the Angel Gabriel, and cannot be and never have been changed. After the period of colonization by the West in the twentieth century, some scholars who have written about reinterpreting verses in the Qur'an have been killed by closed-minded orthodox believers who believed only their interpretation is correct. They also were killed or driven underground by authoritarian leaders who were puppets of the colonial powers and feared the attractive power of educated scholars in the (madrasas) universities.
At this point, I believe that it is helpful to read a book by Larry Poston, with Carl Ellis, entitled: The Changing Face of Islam in America. His ninth chapter is an attempt to point out how Christian beliefs and spirituality differ from that of Muslims and other faiths. He emphasizes the differences between external practices what I call, cultural institutional aspects of faith, and the internal and personal aspects of faith, which cannot be imposed upon a person, but must be accepted as a voluntary commitment to a relationship with God, an experience that Evangelicals call "being born again".(p. 195-203). Evangelicals believe that there is only one path to this relationship. Others who call themselves Christians disagree with this exclusivist, one-and-only path to a relationship with God. Muslims have their own beliefs about salvation as being based on a measure of their compassionate and good actions versus their bad, selfish, and sinful actions. Yet, I believe that many do achieve a personal relationship with Allah and that the model of a righteous person that they follow from the hadith - actions and sayings of Muhammad, guide them in their commitment to a relationship with their God. For either of these two religions, striving to progress along the "right" path is not an easy task in our secular, over-commercialized and greedy world.
Poston describes Christianity as an exclusivist faith, and poses the question: "Is it possible to embrace a pluralistic democracy and at the same time be a Christian exclusivist?" (p. 194). He answers this question on page 202 by writing: "...Christians should function individually as exclusivists, but locally, nationally and internationally as pluralists,"
CHOICES FOR IDENTITY FORMATION AMONG MUSLIM COLLEGE YOUTH - U
I have been looking for a description of psychological considerations that relate to, and expand, the ideas expressed above. I found a recently published chapter that describes the situation and considerations that influence Muslim youth in the West, written by Professor Marcia Hermansen of Loyola University/Chicago. The chapter is: "How to Put the Genie Back in the Bottle? - 'Identity' Islam and Muslim Youth Cultures in America", and it appears in a book edited by Omid Safi entitled Progressive Muslims. The book was published by Oneworld Press. Hermansen discussed: components of identity, culture as a problem, Muslim Student Association sub-cultures, extremism and fringe movements, gender issues within the brotherhoods, accountability, and more. She ends with recommendations for helping young Muslims living in the West apply their energy (symbolized by the Genie) in positive ways that could help them make a contribution to existing institutions and activities rather than becoming alienated and isolated.
Some of her highlights follow.
She defined a progressive Muslim outlook as: "one based on informed understanding of the tradition in its historical and multi-cultural context as evolving to address the needs and issues of the time in a way that is both spiritually and politically empowering."
"COMPONENTS OF IDENTITY" - V
What do we mean by "identity"? One's identity is influenced by how a person answers the following questions. How do others see me? How should I act? What should I do? Is it all up to me or can I get parts of my identity from my family, group, community, religious faith?
Hermansen wrote on page 308 in Safi's book, "One of the main factors driving Muslim youth activities in America is the quest for identity. That this identity might be shaped (distorted) in odd ways is not surprising. The struggle of a new generation is influenced by the fact that the majority of immigrant American Muslims arrived only after 1980, therefore many of today's youth are the first cohort born in America". Struggling for a place in the dominant society is nothing new. "Muslim youth of immigrant parents are often more "different" in terms of skin color, names, religion, than were previous waves of immigrants. The American political situation since the 1960's has, in increasing measure, constructed Islam and Muslims as the enemy or threat to the American way of life or Western civilization. At the same time, since the 1970's, a new form of internationalist Islamic ideology, combining political ambitions, anti-colonialism, and conservative religious revivalism, has often been the (main) oppositional voice raised against repressive regimes in the Muslim world. A litany of injustices of the West against Islam is part of Muslim collective memory and present rhetoric, and to a large extent present reality, most recent examples being the Palestinian situation, Kashmir, and the blockade on Iraq."
"One can well imagine the identity dilemma of a Muslim teenager brought up largely in an American environment who has been encouraged by parents, Islamic groups, and extended family to dis-identify with American cultural and political contexts and to imagine himself or herself as being from somewhere else (Pakistan or Palestine, for example) as a critical or oppositional stance. At the same time, this young person is probably never going to 'make it' as an authentic citizen of the imagined homeland, since he or she faces substantial inadequacies in language competency, historical knowledge and even cultural and social assumptions of the idealized place of origin." (p. 308 in Safi).
Can most humans handle the complexity to manage several identities in our postmodern world? What is needed to help them? How does the justice system help and/or hinder identity management? What is a workable alternative to tribal-scale commitments, or commitments to a religious cleric who simplifies faith to the point where it becomes exclusivist rather than pluralistic?
"CULTURE AS A PROBLEM" - W
"An ideological premise of internationalist identity Islam is that this 'true' Islam is apparently floating above everything cultural. It is pristine and unassailable politically it had established a utopian state where everyone was happy and honest--this state should be re-imposed on humanity today and it will be a better world. Internationalist Muslim revivalist movements such as Jamaat Islami and Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-Muslimin) have encouraged this concept of a 'cultureless' Islam around the world. These revivalists have been able to dominate Muslim organizations and mosques due to their commitment, pre-existing networks, external material support, and defined ideological agenda."(p. 309 in Safi). Does the reader think that Islam or Christianity can be "cultureless?
"I recall a campus MSA meeting where selections of the most naive and apologetic nature from a certain South Asian publication were read out loud before an audience of university students. No one commented or questioned and the few non-Muslim students in attendance were perplexed and alienated by the childish level of credulity exhibited. If anyone of the Muslim students had comments or criticisms to offer, it was stifled by the conformity and 'group-mind' culture that excludes diversity and marginalizes independent thinking."( from p, 310 in Hermansen's chapter).
"Among some young Muslim ideologues, fear of being co-opted by the 'western' university system leads to a fascination with the madrasha style of learning. Online mullas provide the most rigid and hateful fatwas proscribing the most picayune and oppressive regulations. Western 'shaykhs' in robes and turbans purvey a new brand of authoritarian charisma." (p. 311 in Safi).
"For many children of Muslim immigrants technical fields and medicine are seen as being less corrupting than the interpretive humanities and social science subjects and the former are sometimes justified as being of potential service 'to Muslims'. In addition, the issues of interpretation raised by the humanities and social sciences involve the sort of nuance and multivalency that more rigid Muslim youth wish to avoid confronting in understanding Islam." (p. 311 in Safi).
Please Note that I have more discussion on this topic in my posting: "An Approach to Understanding Muslim Perspectives."
I have not included mention of Islamic spirituality in the foregoing, but refer you to a short presentation from a dear friend who is a Muslim. Click on: Islamic Spirituality. Also see my forthcoming book, Countering Polarization, mentioned earlier.
SELECTED VERSES FROM THE QUR'AN appear at the end of this posting.
WORK OF PROGRESSIVE MUSLIMS SINCE 9-11-01 - X
Khaled Abou El Fadl, in his chapter in a book edited by Omid Safi, entitled Progressive Muslims, stated the following on page 46.
"Colonialism formally dismantled the institutions of civil society, and Muslims witnessed the emergence of highly centralized and despotic, and often corrupt, governments that nationalized the institutions of religious learning and brought the private endowments under state control". "The institutions of religion and law were supported by a complex system of private endowments, which enabled Muslim scholars to generate a remarkably rich intellectual tradition". "Traditionally, the institutions of Islamic law were de-centralized, and Islamic epistemology tolerated and even celebrated differences of opinion and a variety of schools of thought".
El Fadl, on page 62 wrote: "The burden on Muslim intellectuals today is heavy indeed ...just because Muslims achieved greatness once does not necessarily mean that they will do so again. From a Muslim perspective it is arrogant to assume that regardless of the efforts and behavior of Muslims, God is, somehow, obligated to save Muslims from the consequences of their own deeds. Classical jurists used to repeat that political power is necessary to safeguard the interests of religion, but they also used to warn that political power is fundamentally corrupting of the human conscience and the mandates of justice. This is particularly true of the current Muslim reality."
Since 9-11, Muslims have been writing and speaking out to counter biased and distorted reports about Muslims and Islam in the media. It takes time to learn the causes of distorted views, counter them with factual information, and publish a book. Safi's book is one of the better examples. Others are by El Fadl and another by Rauf. See my Bibliography.
I recommend a new book by Irshad Manji, entitled: The Trouble With Islam Today. She urges moderate Muslims to speak out against the narrow and distorted interpretations of Islam that are used to energize the violent and closed-minded extremists. She is a young Canadian journalist and writes from her heart. Check it out in Amazon.com.
In conclusion, my cross links in this handout provide more detailed discussions for several of the topics summarized herein. Please Note: that I continue to update many of these postings and occasionally I add new postings.
SELECTED VERSES FROM THE QUR'AN - Y
Muslim attitudes toward followers of other religions appear in an often-quoted verse from the Qur'an. The following presents translations of the same verse [verse 5:51] from three different translations to show the variation. Then, I include some discussion about the variation, including some notes from Muhammad Asad's translation, which is my favorite.
[5.51] "O you who believe! Take not the Jews and the Christians as "Auliya" (friends, protectors, helpers), They are but Auliya of each other. And if any amongst you takes them (as Auliya), then surely he is one of them. Verily, Allah guides not those people who are the Zalimun (polytheists and wrong-doers and unjust)". [from The Noble Koran, King Fahd Complex, K.S.A.].
[5.51] "O ye who believe! Take not the Jews and Christians for friends. They are friends one to another. He among you who taketh one of them for friends is (one) of them." [1954 Mentor books]
[5.51] "O you who believe! Do not take the Jews and the Christians for friends; they are friends of each other; and whoever amongst you takes them for a friend, then surely he is one of them; surely Allah does not guide the unjust people." from; [Univ. of Michigan website on the Qur'an. The URL is: http://www.hti.umich.edu/k/koran/].
The foregoing three verses come from different translations to point out that translations from the Arabic into English are not all the same. The translation of the Arabic word "Auliya" might be closer to "allies (singular wali)" "helper", "protector", "one of our own followers of faith" rather than to "friend". Muhammad Asad mentions in his translation of the Qur'an, in his related and linked footnotes, that if one adopts the way of life of nonbelievers in the hope of being honored, or accepted as equals with them, it will conflict with the moral principles of the true faith, and lead to abandonment of its principles and loss of an Islamic moral identity. (Footnote 154 for verse 4:139). It appears to me that Asad does not distinguish between the universal values of the three Abramic faiths and those values from pre-Christian times which have are found in the Old Testament and the Qur'an; mainly values associated with very rural, tribal, and patriarchal ways of life in an agrarian and grazing culture.
I believe that the intent of verse [5.51] in today's world might be preserved if we say: "Do not put your trust in narrow-minded people who claim to be Chosen by God to lead the world." This interpretation relates to Section T above: "ON EXCLUSIVISM AND CLOSED MINDS".
I would add in this case another consideration. The variety of Jewish and Christian approaches to faith has increased considerably since the seventh century, especially after the Protestant Reformation. Thus, it is necessary to consider that in the Qur'an, the words - Jews and Christians - as used at that time, probably grouped all believers of each of the two faiths together, and seldom distinguished between believers of orthodox and more up-to-date interpretations of the faiths and their sacred books. Today, there are many distinct varieties within the so-called believer interpretations of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism today.
Another example is: [2.256], in the Qur'an which deals with "there should be no compulsion concerning religion". Asad translates it as "There shall be no coercion in matters of faith". In a footnote he wrote: "The term "Din", (in Arabic) denotes both the contents of and compliance with a morally binding law, consequently it signifies "religion in its widest sense.... including doctrine and attitudes". "All Islamic jurists say that forcible conversion under all circumstances is null and void" Those who follow evil whether Muslims, Jews or Christians and threaten the lives of good Muslims are a different story as I see it. See verses [2:190-2:193] below.
There are many other verses from the Qur'an, on a variety of topics, in my web posting: Notes On The Qur'an. Continuing on with just a few of the topics, with respect to killing, the Qur'an says: [2.190] And fight in the way of Allah with those who fight with you, and do not exceed the limits, [Asad says do not commit aggression] surely Allah does not love those who exceed the limits.
[2.191] And kill them wherever you find them, and drive them out from whence they drove you out, and persecution is severer than slaughter, [Asad says for oppression is worse than killing] and do not fight with them at the Sacred Mosque until they fight with you in it, but if they do fight you, then slay them; such is the recompense of the unbelievers.
In note 167, Asad says "This and the following verses lay down unequivocally that only self-defence (in the widest sense of the word) makes war permissable for Muslims."
[2.192] But if they desist, then surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.
[2.193] And fight with them until there is no persecution, [Asad says until there is no more oppression] and religion should be only for Allah, but if they desist, then there should be no hostility except against the oppressors.
Karen Armstrong, in her book "Holy War - The Crusades and their Impact on Today's World", pages 40-41, described how in the seventh century, "to justify this apparent violation of Mohammad's principles (urging soldiers to fight humanely), Muslim jurists began to develop a theology of the jihad....it was the duty of the Muslim state to conquer the rest of the non-Muslim world..." "But, by the beginning of the eighth century, the jihad effort had burned out. The House of Islam (the Muslim state) had serious internal difficulties...". It seems that some Americans on the far right, and some Muslim Imans today, have taken the post-crusade interpretation as always existing and in the Qur'an.
On the other hand, Esposito, in his book "Unholy War has the following quote of page 67. "Ibn Khaldun, an acclaimed medieval historian,"...wrote; "In the Muslim community, holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the Muslim mission and (the obligation to) convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force". Other medieval authors, like their Christian counterparts, went even further, teaching that the purpose of jihad is to rid the earth of unbelievers." An Egyptian jurist Mahmud Shaltut, former rector of al-Azhar University, argued that jihad was to be only against "unbelievers who had assailed the Muslim mission." Sayyid Qutb rejected forced conversions. However, Appleby, in his book The Ambivalence of the Sacred, page 93, states: Finally, (Qutb) gave an extremist interpretation of a traditional precept - jihad - and justified the interpretation...that Jihad is not about the defense of a national homeland, Qutb insists. Rather, it is a command to extend the borders of Islam to the ends of the earth."
Thus, it appears that the political situation in Muslim societies influenced whether the jihad related to holy war was seen as compulsory or was seen as burned out. It appears to have oscillated between the two extremes. Gilles Kepel, ends his book "Jihad - The Trail of Political Islam" with the view that violent revisionism of Islam is starting to burn out again. My personal feeling is that the revisionism was fueled by the frustrations and lack of hope caused by living under colonial rule and more recently neo-colonial rule by those modernized societies with economies so dependent upon oil.
The West needs to help the Muslims move toward economic development, less authoritarianism, improved education for both sexes, resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and toward democratic forms of governance that are compatible with the principles of Islam. These five needs must be supported by the West in a coordinated and coherent manner. That is no easy task, but it is the only way to have peace.
Two other verses, that are very similar, relate to acceptance of diversity follow.
[2.62] Surely those who believe, and those who are Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabians [followers of John the Baptist according to Asad, note 49], whoever believes in Allah and the Last day and does good, they shall have their reward from their Lord, and there is no fear for them, nor shall they grieve.
[5.69] Surely those who believe and those who are Jews and the Sabians and the Christians whoever believes in Allah and the last day and does good -- they shall have no fear nor shall they grieve.
Another verse, often quoted in relation to being tolerant of diversity is 49:13. Muhammad Asad's translation and one by Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, currently at Emory University, and formerly at the University of Khartoum, found in Appleby's book The Ambivalence of the Sacred on page 257.
The following few verses imply support for my idea of hardwiring in our brains of a desire to relate to caring others, that is discussed in the fourth section in my short E-book, entitled Relating to the Divine and Peacemaking.
Verse 30:30 "AND SO, set thy face steadfastly towards the (one ever-true) faith, turning away from all that is false, in accordance with the natural disposition which God has instilled into man: ..." See his note #27 referring to that verse, and also his note #139 for verse 7:172. Note #27 includes the famous saying of the Prophet Muhammad: "Every child is born in (with) this natural disposition". Note #139 says: "According to the Qur'an, The ability to perceive the existence of the Supreme Power is inborn in human nature (fitrah) ..."
The following relevant verses come from Chapter 9 of the Qur'an.
[9.9] They have taken a small price for the communications of Allah, so they turn away from His way; surely evil is it that they do.
[9.10] They do not pay regard to ties of relationship nor those of covenant in the case of a believer; and these are they who go beyond the limits.
[9.11] But if they repent and keep up prayer and pay the poor-rate, they are your brethren in faith; and We make the communications clear for a people who know.
[9.12] And if they break their oaths after their agreement and (openly) revile your religion, then fight the leaders of unbelief - surely their oaths are nothing -- so that they may desist.
[9.13] What! will you not fight a people who broke their oaths and aimed at the expulsion of the Apostle, and they attacked you first; do you fear them? But Allah is most deserving that you should fear Him, if you are believers.
[9.14] Fight them, Allah will punish them by your hands and bring them to disgrace, and assist you against them and heal the hearts of a believing people.
[9.15] And remove the rage of their hearts; and Allah turns (mercifully) to whom He pleases, and Allah is Knowing, Wise.
[9.16] What! do you think that you will be left alone while Allah has not yet known those of you who have struggled hard and have not taken any one as an adherent besides Allah and His Apostle and the believers; and Allah is aware of what you do.
[9.17] The idolaters have no right to visit the mosques of Allah while bearing witness to unbelief against themselves, these it is whose doings are null, and in the fire shall they abide.
SELECTED VERSES ON WOMEN FROM THE QUR'AN - Z
The following is from Muhammad Asad's translation of [4:34]. Footnote information follows.
[4.34] "Men shall take full care of women (physical maintenance and protection as well as moral responsibility) with the bounties which God has bestowed more abundantly on the former than the latter, and with what they may spend out of their possessions. And the righteous women are the truly devout ones, who guard the intimacy which God has [ordained to be] guaranteed."
"And for those women whose ill will (rebellion) you have reason to fear, admonish them [first]; then leave them alone in bed; then beat them; (Pickthall used the word, "scourge") and if thereupon they pay you heed, do not seek to harm them. Behold God is indeed most high, great!"
NOTE: (rebellion or ill will here includes mental cruelty). It is evident from many authentic traditions that the Prophet himself intensely detested the idea of beating one's wife, and said on more than one occasion. For example, one Hadith says: "Could any of you beat his wife as he would beat a slave, and lie with her in the evening?"
NOTE: Asad has an extensive footnote #45 on the interpretation of "then beat them." The prophet himself intensely detested the idea of beating one's wife...and said: "Never beat God's handmaidens". In a sermon, shortly before his death, he said "that beating should be resorted to only if the wife "has become guilty only in an obvious manner, of immoral conduct", and that it should be done "in such a way as not to cause pain"; authorities on the traditions say that this beating should be more or less symbolic - "with a toothbrush or some such thing', or even with a folded handkerchief".
[24.31] NOTE: This verse is a blend of Univ. of Mich. and M. Asad translations). And say to the believing women that they cast down their looks and guard their private parts and do not display their [charms] ornaments [in public] beyond what may [decently] be apparent thereof; hence, let them draw their head-coverings over their bosoms. And let them not display [more of] their charms to any but their husbands, or their fathers, or the fathers of their husbands, or their sons, or the sons of their husbands, or their brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or those whom their right hands possess, or the male servants [as are beyond all sexual desire,] or the children who have not attained knowledge of what is hidden of women; and let them not swing their legs in walking so as to draw attention to their hidden charms; and turn to Allah all of you, O believers! So that you may be successful.
VERSES FROM THE QUR'AN RELATED TO JESUS AND THE RESURRECTION - AA
[3.55] And when Allah said: O Jesus, I am going to terminate the period of your stay (on earth) and cause you to ascend unto Me and purify you of those who disbelieve and make those who follow you above those who disbelieve to the day of resurrection; then to Me shall be your return, so I will decide between you concerning that in which you differed.
NOTE: For a discussion about Jesus and the corruption of the Torah and Bible by both Christians and Jews, see verses [3.56] onward, in the Qur'an.
[4.157] And their boast: "Behold we have slain the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, the apostle of Allah; who claimed to be an Apostle of God." However, they did not kill him and neither did they crucify him, but it only seemed to them as if it had been so; and most surely those who hold conflicting views thereon are indeed confused, having no real knowledge thereof, and following mere conjecture, for of a certainty they did not slay him:
[4.158] nay God exalted him unto Himself -
[4.159] And there is not one of the followers of the Book but most certainly believes in this before his death, and on the day of resurrection he (Jesus) shall be a witness against them.
NOTE: Three footnotes from a translation of the Qur'an by Abdullah Yusef Ali (Notes 663 - 665 on pages 230-231) shed light on the variety of views of Jesus life and death. Note 665 indicates that some say Jesus "...will appear just before the Final Day in preparation for the coming of Imam Mahdi, when the world will be purified of sin and unbelief." Compare the two phrases in italics. These are all that I have found so far. I wish to thank Robert Markham, PhD, Loveland, CO for assistance in using his extensive 180-page index of the Qur'an to find the foregoing verses.
WEB SOURCES
Univ. of Michigan website on the Qur'an. This web site has a word search capability like a Bible Concordance. Click on 'Simple Searches' or 'Browse the Koran'. The URL is: (http://www.hti.umich.edu/k/koran/).
Information about Hadith (sayings of Muhammad) and a list of 500 Hadith are accessible by clicking on: http://wings.buffalo.edu/sa/muslim/isl/hadith1.html
My favorite English translation of the Qur'an that has many helpful footnotes is: The Message of the Qur'an by Muhammad Asad.
© Copyright: by Charles Notess, 2004-08. "Fair use" encouraged.
Two sections in my posting - "Notes on the Qur'an" (http://www.notess.com/cn/koran1.shtml) present many verses and hadiths on women and on stoning from the Qur'an and selected hadiths, which are sayings and actions of The Prophet Muhammad. If you are now on the web, see: On Women and On Stoning. The following website describes some recent news items on stoning: Stoning as a Form of Punishment under Sharia Law. The source is the International Society for Human Rights.